RANGELAND MANAGEMENT

Posted by OZOCHIMA on March 29, 2017 in STUDENTS WORK | No comments

INTRODUCTION

Rangelands occupy about 50% of the world’s land area. Rain forests and rangelands are the last land resources of the world and they are in danger of degradation and disappearance through unwise use, over-exploitation and destruction and they are equally as deserving of the attention of politicians, administrators, scientists as well as the general public. In fact, it can be argued that rangelands are in even greater danger than rain forests, because they occur in drier regions which are often very densely populated and over-exploited by cropping and overgrazing, leading to degradation and desertification. Therefore, there is a great need for the conservation of rangelands, meaning their sustainable use for the benefit of mankind now and in perpetuity.

DEFINITIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF RANGELAND

The term rangeland covers a great variety of vegetation types, which already follows from the often quoted varying estimates that it occupies from 30 to 50% of the earth’s land surface, depending on the definition of what rangeland constitutes.

According to the concise Oxford dictionary range is a “stretch of grazing or hunting ground”.

According to the Society for Range Management (SRM), rangelands are a type of land on which the natural vegetation is dominated by grasses, forbs and shrubs and the land is managed as a natural ecosystem.

Rangelands include grasslands, forestlands and wetlands. Included in this definition are arid shrublands, savannas, woodlands, the arctic tundra, mountain meadows and deserts. Rangeland can also encompass pastures of introduced grasses, such as crested wheatgrass, that are managed as rangelands, as well as arid rangelands that can yield anywhere from 200 to 1,500 pounds or more of dry matter per acre per year.

Rangelands are found on all continents and in all climates: in the tropics in Australia, Africa, South America and Asia; in temperate regions in Australia, South and North America, Europe and Eurasia. Also in arctic regions rangelands occur (tundra and taiga). Rangelands are not only natural vegetation types, occurring in climates that are too dry or too cold for dense tree growth. They also originated as a result of grazing and burning of abandoned croplands and of land after forest clearing in humid and sub-humid regions, in which case they form a sub-climax vegetation, maintained by grazing, cutting or burning.

CHARACTERISTICS, IMPORTANCE AND THREATS TO RANGELANDS

Rangelands are the world’s largest land type. They consist of prairies, grasslands, deserts, alpine, savanna, marshes and forests. The primary components of rangelands are native grasses, shrubs and other native plants.

Rangelands are typically characterized by low precipitation, shallow soils and slow nutrient cycling. They are usually dominated by grasses, forbs and shrubs efficient at water and nutrient utilization, so practices that are appropriate to temperate pastures, such as fertilization and plowing, are often inappropriate on rangelands.

Rangelands are extremely productive and rich in biodiversity, providing:

•         A source of high quality water, clean air and open spaces;

•         Essential wildlife habitat and carbon sequestration;

•         An environment for recreation such as hiking, camping, hunting and fishing;

•         Economic means for agriculture, mining and local communities;

•         A setting for social, cultural and aesthetic activities.

Regardless, rangelands can be very productive, providing sustainable income for ranch communities while protecting valuable natural resources through appropriate grazing strategies.Rangelands are important for forage, wildlife habitat, livestock production, water, recreation, open space and native plants.

Forces that threaten rangeland integrity include unsustainable grazing practices, damaging fire regimes, invasive plant species, global climate change, human development, etc.

RANGELAND MANAGEMENT

Rangeland Management is - The use and stewardship of rangeland resources to meet goals and desires of humans.

Rangeland management is a unique discipline that blends science and management for the purpose of sustaining this valuable land. The primary goal of rangeland management is to protect and enhance a sustainable ecosystem that provides forage for wildlife and livestock, clean water and recreation on public and private land. In order to achieve these results, professionals may use a variety of techniques such as controlled burning and grazing regimes. Balancing soil productivity, plant physiology and climatic conditions are primary functions in the planning, monitoring and assessment activities involved with rangeland management.

In addition to the maintenance of healthy ecosystems, rangeland professionals assess and implement rehabilitation and land reclamation techniques following drastic disturbances such as wildfires, droughts, floods and extractions of minerals, oil and gas.

Tools for Rangeland Management

Natural forces and impacts:

·         Fire

·         Herbivory

·         Invasion

·         Human Uses

·         Climate Change

Tools for stewardships:

·         Prescribed fire

·         Managed grazing by Livestock

·         Weed management (invasion)

·         Management of human uses

·         Restoration/Rehabilitation

These factors change the plants and animals that inhabit rangeland sometimes in ways that land managers and users find desirable and other times in ways that are considered adverse.

Principles of Range Management

There are four basic principles of range management. They include:

1. Distribute livestock over the range.

Livestock are creatures of habitat and will not typically distribute themselves uniformly over the range, even if topography is not an issue. Bull’s‐eye grazing patterns are typical on most range areas, with water sources, flat terrain and shaded areas receiving disproportional use. These are referred to as primary range. Unless effort is taken to distribute use through water development, strategic fencing, herding and the use of attractants, these areas of primary range tend to be overgrazed and overused.

2. Graze to the right use level.

In the past, 50% of annual forage production was seen as the safe level of use. Recent analysis has shown that this is a poor rule of thumb. On average, late‐seral range should be used at no more than 40% of production, mid‐seral at 30% and early‐seral at 17‐25%. Some domestic forages can be used at a higher level because they are adapted to grazing and usually have growing points that are low to the ground and not easily removed by the grazing animal. We have also learned the importance of leaving plant residue to protect the soil from erosion and the evaporative effects of sun and wind. Plant residue is the first step to recovery on early‐seral and damaged range.

In addition to grazing at the right levels, it’s important to have high enough livestock numbers to get even use of grass plants. Studies of rest‐rotation grazing (RG) have shown that plant communities respond best with higher stock densities (but lower overall stocking rates), because cattle will not graze as selectively. This translates to more even access to soil moisture and nutrients and an equal opportunity to grow roots, leaves and store food reserves for all plants.

3. Allow enough rest during the growing season.

Overgrazing and overuse are not the same thing. Overuse happens when more of the annual growth is removed than is recommended, for example if 40% use is considered safe, and 60% is actually removed. Overgrazing happens when a plant (and a range) is grazed so severely and so frequently that it does not have an opportunity to recover. A plant might be overused, but if it has a long recovery period during active growth, it’s not necessarily a harmful thing.

Specialized grazing systems are typically designed to allow plants planned periods of time where they are free from grazing.

4. Graze at the right time (and for the right duration).

Graze the range at a time when plants and soil won’t be harmed and there is enough forage to sustain the grazing animal. There needs to be at least 15 cm of new growth for cattle to graze efficiently. Also it’s best not to graze the same fields at the same time each year. Spring turn‐out pastures that are grazed and rested in alternate years will provide a more predictable forage quantity and quality than those grazed early every year.

It’s also important to control the length of time (number of days) cattle have access to the pasture unit. During very rapid plant growth, it’s possible for animals to regraze new leaf material within as few as 3 to 15 days. During slower plant growth animals can be left longer on a pasture unit without the risk of regrazing new growth provided the use level is not exceeded. This (along with rest) is a key principle of time‐controlled grazing (TC) and short‐duration (SD) grazing systems.

Specific strategies for sustainable rangeland management

They include:

        i.            Prescribed grazing on rangeland

      ii.            Developing a grazing management plan on rangeland

    iii.            Participatory rangeland management

v  Prescribed grazing on rangeland

Prescribed grazing can be thought of as a process of developing a grazing system that seeks to integrate the economic and ecological realities that ranchers are faced with on the Western range. The USDA defines prescribed grazing as “the controlled harvest of vegetation with grazing or browsing animals, managed with the intent to achieve a specified objective”.

Management objectives addressed by prescribed grazing include:

·         Improve or maintain the health and vigor of selected plants and maintain a stable and desired plant community;

·         Provide or maintain food, cover and shelter for animals of concern;

·         Improve or maintain animal health and productivity;

·         Maintain or improve water quality and quantity; and

·         Reduce accelerated soil erosion and maintain or improve soil condition for susceptibility of the resource.

A very crucial aspect of a prescribed grazing regime is the development of a workable and ecologically appropriate grazing management plan.

v  Developing a grazing management plan on rangeland

Designing an effective grazing plan isn’t as daunting as it seems. Mostly it is applying observation to management, observing some more and then adjusting as needed. There are five steps in developing a grazing plan. They are:

1)      Create an inventory

2)      Define goals

3)      Determine grazing units

4)      Develop a grazing schedule

5)      Develop a monitoring and evaluation plan (Montana DNRC, 1999)

Ø  Create an inventory

This is for gathering baseline information to allow you to make appropriate decisions about land and pasture use. Obtain soil maps from your Natural Resources Conservation Service office and mark appropriate land forms, soil types and fences and paddocks. Find out what plants are in each pasture and evaluate the pastures based on a condition score. Utilize features such as key species, percent canopy cover, amount of bare ground, presence of noxious weeds, annual forage production in pounds per acre and amount of residue to determine pasture condition and productivity.

Ø  Define goals

Make a list of what you want to accomplish. This will be a list of your expectations and will guide you in making plans and decisions. Do you want to improve the economic value of the ranch? Maintain wildlife habitat? Improve water quality and quantity? Reduce noxious weeds? Also consider available acreage and the amount of time you have to put into this project.

Ø  Determine grazing units

Divide the pastures into units that you can rotate animals through. This will allow you to rest pastures and allow for regrowth following grazing. It will also allow you to rotate grazing on a seasonal basis. Determine how much forage is available in each grazing unit and map it out. Note key species, percent cover, water availability, facilities and other aspects important to you. Remember that livestock should always be within a two-hour walk from water. This will help you to determine grazing unit size for large parcels.

Ø  Develop a grazing schedule

This will be a graphic illustration of your plans for grazing each unit during the grazing season. Develop the schedule based on your total animal units and available animal unit months in each unit. If you have a 100-acre pasture with two animal unit months per acre, you have 200 animal unit months of forage available. At 50-percent allowable use, cut it in half to 100 animal unit months. This means you have enough forage available to feed 100 animals for one month. Or, said another way, 50 animal units for two months, 33 for three months and so on.

Important concepts here are duration of grazing and time for regrowth. Some range ecologists and managers believe that grazing intensity is also important, and it is. A plant needs to have green leaves left after grazing for photosynthesis and subsequent regrowth. However, others feel that grazing severity isn’t as important as regrowth time. Whichever you choose, it is important to remember to allow plenty of time for adequate regrowth before the animal gets to bite a plant a second time. Take a look at the native plants on an upland range site if you have the opportunity. Some, like bluebunch wheatgrass and little bluestem, are large-statured and can handle several bites from an animal in one grazing event. Some, like Sandburg bluegrass, Idaho fescue and black grama, are smaller and one bite is all it takes to reduce the plant to stubble.

Cattle especially tend to graze severely, so don’t get too caught up in how much they take off. Strive for 50-percent use and allow for regrowth. For some sites on dry ranges, this will mean one grazing event per year. For areas with more moisture, you might be able to return every 15 to 30 days for another grazing event.

Ø  Develop a monitoring and evaluation plan

This is the most neglected part of range management, and the most important. A good monitoring system will allow you to check how your management decisions are working on the ground. It will allow you to determine, for instance, if a particular grazing plan is having the desired effect over time. A monitoring plan will often involve a few important evaluation criteria, such as plant species composition, percent cover and frequency of species. By comparing these measurements over time, you can start to see trends and can alter and adjust your grazing system in order to arrive at your goals.

Recordkeeping is a very important part of pasture monitoring. In addition to recording the aforementioned physical measurements, keep track of when livestock enter and leave a pasture; what materials or chemicals are used; revegetation or weed control treatments; and observations on cattle health while in the pasture. This information will be extremely useful in refining your grazing plans.

v  Participatory Rangeland Management (PRM) as a land use planning and management tool for pastoral areas

The process of PRM is a series of sequential steps in which the elements are put in place to produce a participatory rangeland management agreement. The objective is to have an agreement that is endorsed by all relevant stakeholders, which is legally binding and can be effectively monitored.

PRM promotes inclusivity and participation of all stakeholders in land use planning processes, including pastoralists, with a view to ensure improved rangeland management and hence livelihoods, through the establishment of a government certified rangeland management agreement.

The PRM process can be divided into three distinct stages with underlying steps:

1. Investigating PRM

The first stage in the PRM process is the gathering of information about the different resources found in the rangelands, their uses (including at different times of the year), and the stakeholders and users (including their institutions and groups that have a role in rangeland resource management). This is achieved through the use of different tools including resource mapping and stakeholder analysis.

Step 1: Identifying rangeland resources and users

The basis of a rangeland management agreement is the rangeland’s resources and resource users. Before negotiations can get underway it is essential that everyone involved in the process has a clear understanding of what the resources are and who the users are. Local government staff and NGO representatives can facilitate the collection of information on rangeland resources and assist communities to carry out a stakeholder analysis.

2. Negotiating PRM

The second stage is focused on negotiation. This is achieved through the following:

Step 2: Setting up or strengthening rangeland management institutions

The establishment or strengthening of functional community-based rangeland management institutions is at the centre of successful PRM. The rangeland management institution is the body or group that will take on the roles and responsibilities of community-based rangeland management. The strength of the rangeland management institution is therefore critical, including the skills and capabilities of its members to carry out the duties assigned to them.

Step 3: Defining the rangeland management unit and preparing the rangeland resource assessment

The rangeland management unit is the area of land over which the PRM institution will have primary jurisdiction and authority. Defining this area, and establishing the presence and condition of the resources found within it through a participatory rangeland resource assessment, is the next step in the process of participatory rangeland management.

Step 4: Developing the rangeland management plan

The rangeland management plan is the vital last step before the drawing up of the rangeland management agreement and its authorization. It is recommended that the plan be developed by the rangeland management institution and be based on discussions with all relevant community groups and other stakeholders.

Step 5: The rangeland management agreement

The rangeland management agreement is the binding contract document for participatory rangeland management between the government authorities and the rangeland management institution.

The final step of the ‘negotiation’ stage of PRM is the drawing up and signing of the rangeland management agreement. It is likely that the formulation of the rangeland management agreement will require extensive meetings, discussions and negotiations between the government offices and the rangeland management institution, particularly on rights and responsibilities

3. Implementing PRM

The final stage of the PRM process is the implementation of the rangeland management plan, and adherence to the rangeland management agreement by the rangeland users. Adherence is the responsibility of the rangeland management institution, supported by the appropriate government office providing necessary technical advice and legal backing. Regular monitoring and evaluation of the PRM process is vital to ensure the implementation of the management plan and agreement, with appropriate changes being made based on a system of adaptive management. The rangeland management institution and the appropriate government office, should work together to ensure implementation occurs. This new partnership will require people to take on new roles and new ways of working.

Step 6: New roles for communities and rangeland management advisors

Participatory rangeland management requires an effective partnership between the appropriate local government office and the community rangeland management institution, with each side working towards mutual goals. Important new changes are required in the roles of these partners, as well as in the roles played by supporting advisors/facilitators from NGOs and research institutes.

Step 7: Arresting and reversing declining rangeland productivity

Implementing new rangeland management approaches through a practical working partnership is essential for the success and maximum effectiveness of PRM. But communities should not be left to get on with managing rangelands without assistance: they need support, skills and technical knowhow from professional rangeland and natural resource managers, particularly in the face of many new changes and pressures on rangeland environments.

Step 8: Participatory monitoring and evaluation

The effectiveness of its monitoring and evaluation system will ultimately determine the success of the PRM process. Communities need to develop their own M&E systems as part of taking up, or strengthening, their rangeland management roles. There are two key steps within the PRM process where M&E must be integrated: in the negotiating stage when developing the rangeland management plan, and here in the implementation stage where M&E should be used to facilitate adaptive management and/or help determine best management practices.

CONCLUSION

Rangelands play an important role in the global environmental issues of today and they are equally as deserving of international attention as rain forests. They are a major sink of carbon, which can be increased by reversing degradation and improving the production capacity, reducing the need for so many animals, at the same time reducing the methane emission per animal and increasing the livelihood chances of people in developing countries.

National governments should adopt policies for the conserved use of rangelands and where possible of rangeland improvement consisting of extension and aid programs, supported by the local community, with the help of international development programs.

REFERENCES

Flintan, F. and Cullis, A. (2009). Introductory Guidelines to Participatory Rangeland Management in pastoral Areas. Save the Children USA.

Fraser, D. (2013). The Four Principles of Range Management. British Colombia Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations.

Lauchbaugh, K. (n.d.). What is Rangeland Management?

Mannetje, L. (n.d.). Global Issues of Rangeland Management. Wageningen.

Rinehart, L. (2008). Pasture, Rangeland and Grazing Management. ATTRA-National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. Retrieved January 21, 2017, from www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/past_range_graze.pdf

Society for Rangeland Management (SRM). (n.d.). A Career in Rangeland Management: A wide Range of Opportunities.

University of Idaho Rangeland Centre and Idaho rangeland Resource Commission. (2011). Rangelands: An Introduction to Wild Open Spaces. Moscow.